- The First and Last King of Haiti: The Rise and Fall of Henry Christophe
- Awakening the Ashes
- Baron de Vastey and the Origins of Black Atlantic Humanism
- Empowered Voices: Haitian Women in Academia
Summary
Whenever I hear 1804 Haitian fanatics—those who shout with fevered breath about the glories of the Haitian Revolution, about the unshakable will of Christophe, the unbreakable fire of Dessalines, the brilliant tactical and strategic maneuvers of Louverture—I think about something James Joyce once wrote, something about heroism and the lie that holds it together:
“Do you not think the search for heroics damn vulgar? I am sure however that the whole structure of heroism is, and always was, a damned lie and that there cannot be any substitute for individual passion as the motive power of everything.”
And maybe he was right. Maybe all the grand statues, all the history book renderings of haitian men and women who lived and fought and bled—maybe they were always meant to obscure something harder to face: that there are no perfect person, no unblemished saviors, no mythic warriors who moved through the world without doubt, without error, without contradiction. That the stories we Haitians tell ourselves, the way we flatten our historical figures into marbles, the way we sand off their edges, all of it is less about truth and more about our comfort.
That’s what struck me reading Dr. Marlene Daut’s “The First and Last King of Haiti.” It isn’t a portrait built for worship. Christophe emerges not as an untouchable legend but as a man—a man who built, a man who ruled, a man who inspired (and also a man who made shitloads of mistakes), who punished, who carried the weight of the impossible on his shoulders. There is no neat symmetry to his life here, no easy moral at the end. But there is something real, something tangible. There is a man who shaped history and was, in turn, destroyed by it.
And this is where I think Joyce and the 1804 purists miss each other. Heroism, as an idea, is flawed because we are all flawed. But Haitian history does not belong to those who refuse to see the fullness of its historical figures. It belongs to those Haitians who can hold contradiction, who can see Christophe not as some distant legend but as a man who, for all his flaws, left something behind that still stands.
And maybe that is the only kind of heroism worth anything at all.
Episode Notes
I. OVERVIEW
This document summarizes the discussion with Dr. Marlene Daut, author of “The First and Last King of Haiti: The Rise and Fall of Henri Christophe.” The conversation explores the book’s biographical approach to Henry Christophe, highlighting Daut’s methodology, key biographical points about Christophe and his contemporaries, the political and social dynamics of post-revolutionary Haiti, and the enduring legacy of the period. A central theme is the author’s deliberate decision to challenge traditional biographical objectivity and to actively intervene in the narrative to provide context and highlight differing perspectives, particularly those of Christophe’s allies and enemies.
II. KEY THEMES & IDEAS
- Biographical Ethics and Intervention: Dr. Daut rejects the notion of a purely objective biographer, especially when dealing with marginalized or historically maligned figures like Henri Christophe. She emphasizes the need to reveal the biases and motivations of historical sources, particularly the accounts of enemies, and to provide necessary context for the reader. This approach is deemed “unapologetic” and a “more dimension to this book.”
- Quote: “in telling the story of the very of the very life of Henry Christophe, father and son, brother and friend, husband and soldier, slave and king. I have tried to hue as closely as possible to narratives from the king himself, his family members, his allies, and those who personally knew him or claim to have. Regardless of their ultimate feelings and conclusions about him, at times, I felt forced to rely on the accounts of his enemies. But baking with the ordinary tradition of the biographer who possess silent judgment on the reliability of sources, I also felt it necessary to use my voice to intervene, to provide context and background to help the reader understand the relationship between the chronicler and this subject of the chronicle.”
- Quote: “we need to know who’s doing the talking. What’s their motive? What’s their point of view? What are they hoping to accomplish?”
- The Importance of Terminology and Spelling: Daut begins her book by addressing seemingly minor details like the spelling of names (e.g., Henry with a ‘y’ vs. ‘i’). This is crucial for respecting historical figures’ self-representation and correcting common misconceptions, which are often perpetuated by editors or popular belief.
- Quote: “King Henry always spelled his own name with a y, so I’m not gonna change it to an I.”
- Christophe’s Complex Legacy and Portrayal: Christophe is depicted as a multifaceted figure simultaneously viewed with “wonder and disdain.” Daut aims to understand the man, acknowledging his flaws while also highlighting his visionary qualities. She pushes back against simplistic labels like “monster” or “tyrant,” arguing that his experiences, particularly his exposure to extreme violence and brutality from a young age, must be considered to understand his later actions.
- Quote: “Christophe was a visionary, but, of course, he’s a he’s a flawed man as are all human beings. He’s a flawed character. He’s he’s troubled.”
- Quote: “to think that a person could walk away from, like, the battle of Savannah, which is extremely violent and where he was wounded and where he saw people dying and shot all around him…and to come out of that and say, I believe in humanity, and I wanna create this beautiful society…I find that fascinating, and I find it visionary.”
- Source Reliability and Bias: The discussion emphasizes that all historical sources are subjective and biased. Trusting accounts solely based on the chronicler turning against their subject (e.g., Julien Prevot becoming critical of Christophe after his death) is problematic as it suggests a pre-existing judgment. Including accounts from allies (like Vastey, Wilberforce, Clarkson, Saunders) is essential for a complete picture of a historical figure’s reception during their lifetime.
- Quote: “every single person is [subjective and biased].”
- Quote: “To discount Vastey is also to discount then Wilberforce, to discount Thomas Clarkson, to discount Prince Saunders, to discount so many because that’s why we need all the accounts. We need to see that people had different opinions of this human being.”
- The Prolific Print Culture in the North: The northern part of Haiti under Christophe fostered a voluminous print culture that actively challenged colonial and pro-slavery narratives. This “free press,” as they termed it, was not about diverse independent newspapers but about having the means to speak back to the dominant colonial world and expose the truth of slavery and colonialism.
- Quote: “The northern writers were prolific, and they created an entire culture of black sovereignty that was antislavery and anticolonial and antiracist at the same time.”
- Quote: “when Baron de Vastey and Christophe and other writers are using that word free press, what they mean is they can say what they want back to the colonial world powers, that they are not silenced and hamstrung by a world of proslavery and pro colonial apologist.”
- The Trauma and Resilience of Enslaved and Formerly Enslaved People: The accounts highlight the extreme brutality of slavery in Saint-Domingue and the extraordinary resilience and determination of those who resisted. Even young children preferred escaping into the wilderness to remaining on plantations, demonstrating the depth of their desire for freedom and their refusal to live under such conditions.
- Quote: “They kept running away no matter what their the these very evil people because it’s the only way to describe them. It it is absolutely unconscionably evil.”
- Quote: “That that spirit of of resisting when they said liberty or death, It’s they they meant it in ways again that I think are are really unfathomable to most people.”
- Social Mobility in Post-Revolutionary Haiti (1794-1802): This period saw unprecedented social mobility for Black men, including formerly enslaved individuals, who rose to positions of power as generals and administrators. This swift rise from extreme oppression to leadership roles is described as “meteoric” and was facilitated by the French abolition of slavery, though it ultimately contributed to the French desire to reinstitute colonial control.
- Quote: “a lot of black men experienced forms of social mobility that are actually quite astonishing for this time period…they are the people in society whose chance to survive is so limited…this rise is really meteor meteoric.”
- Christophe’s “Two Tragic Mistakes”: Daut identifies two key decisions in 1802-1803 that had devastating consequences for Christophe: his decision to join the French under Leclerc based on false assurances that slavery would not be reinstated, and his decision to send his eldest son, Ferdinand, to France for education. Both actions stemmed from a misplaced faith in the French government and resulted in the betrayal and death of Toussaint Louverture and the tragic death of his son in Paris.
- The “Massacre” in Quotes: Daut questions the term “massacre” when used to describe the killings of white French people under Dessalines. She points out the selective application of this term (often used for non-white violence against white people) and highlights the context of ongoing French genocidal actions and plans, as well as the possibility that some killings were in response to attempts to overthrow the independent Haitian government. Understanding the different perspectives and the ambiguity of historical events is crucial.
- Quote: “first of all, what gets to be a massacre. Right? That I find that when black people kill white people, it’s a massacre. It’s a it’s terrorism. You know? When nonwhite people it’s it’s terrorism.”
- Quote: “with the massacres, what we see is there’s a lot of disagreement about, is this a continuation of the war? Are these white French people trying to overthrow the now independent Haitian government after 1804, or are these wanton executions for revenge or just a bloodthirsty kill the there are so many different opinions.”
- Christophe’s Versatility and Capacity (“Equal to Many Tasks”): Christophe served in numerous roles under Dessalines beyond his military duties, including planning national celebrations, overseeing the legal system, managing infrastructure projects (like the Citadelle), and engaging in diplomatic and economic matters. This diverse experience prepared him for his later role as king.
- Quote: “he is he is equal to many tasks, which I think makes him not unequal to many.”
- The Civil War and Constitutional Differences: The civil war between the North (under Christophe) and the South (under Petion) was sparked by disagreements over the 1806 constitution drafted by the southerners. While Christophe was elected president, the constitution’s republican model with a rotating head of state and limitations on his power, coupled with perceived disenfranchisement of northern delegates, led him to reject it and initiate hostilities.
- French Attempts at Re-Subjugation and Haitian Resistance: Despite Napoleon’s defeat, the Bourbons repeatedly sent spies and delegations to Haiti with the explicit aim of reinstating slavery and French control. These attempts, fueled by French “hubris,” were met with varying responses from Petion (willing to consider some concessions for recognition) and Christophe (adamantly refusing any negotiation that implied French sovereignty or the possibility of indemnity). The publication of French plots solidified Haitian public opinion and gained international sympathy for Haitian independence.
- Quote: “The Haitian people are incredulous during this time period, and the government is incredulous. And they publish all the stories detailing all the plots and all the things that the French king is trying to do.”
- Christophe as a “Complicated Anti-Hero”: Daut describes Christophe as an anti-hero because, while he genuinely believed he was acting in the best interest of his people and aiming to secure their freedom and prosperity, his methods became increasingly authoritarian. His view that only he could lead and that those who opposed him were enemies led to tyrannical actions, even if his initial intentions were noble.
- Legacy of Strong Sovereignty and Independence: The era of Christophe and Dessalines represents a period of fierce independence and self-sufficiency, in contrast to the dependent state Haiti faces today. The founders prioritized national sovereignty and actively worked to build institutions and a culture of self-reliance. While the indemnity and subsequent challenges hindered this trajectory, the founding era demonstrates the potential for a proud, independent Haiti with a rich cultural output.
- Quote: “this is the era of strong sovereignty and independence, and I mean that as a as a the opposite of dependence in that sense.”
- Quote: “the way that rulers view their people as in Haiti as people who can be used as collateral damage. The lack of concern for human life is not actually from the era of this period.”
III. KEY INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS
- Dr. Marlene Daut: Author and historian, whose biographical approach emphasizes intervention and contextualization.
- Henri Christophe: Subject of the biography, portrayed as a complex visionary, soldier, and king with both strengths and significant flaws.
- Patrick Jean-Baptiste: Interviewer, probing Daut on her methodology and key aspects of Christophe’s life and the historical period.
- Toussaint Louverture: Haitian revolutionary leader, rival of Rigaud, ultimately betrayed and deported by the French, serving as a cautionary tale for Christophe and Dessalines.
- Jean-Jacques Dessalines: First ruler of independent Haiti, under whom Christophe served in numerous capacities. Daut discusses the complexities of his leadership and the differing opinions on his actions.
- Alexandre Pétion: Leader of the southern Republic of Haiti, rival of Christophe during the civil war. Daut presents him as a pragmatic leader willing to negotiate for recognition, distinct from Christophe’s rigid stance against the French.
- André Rigaud: Toussaint Louverture’s main rival, later returned to Haiti and contributed to the instability that led to the civil war.
- Paul Romain Vastey: Christophe’s personal secretary and key figure in the northern print culture. Daut emphasizes the need to read his accounts with an understanding of his bias as an ally.
- William Wilberforce and Thomas Clarkson: British abolitionists who admired Christophe, highlighting his positive global standing among some figures despite his perceived flaws.
- Marie Louise: Christophe’s wife, whose lesser-known birth name (Malgrin) is mentioned, illustrating Daut’s attention to biographical detail.
- François Leclerc: Commander of the French expedition to retake Saint-Domingue, notorious for his brutal and genocidal tactics.
- Donatien de Rochambeau: Succeeded Leclerc, continued and intensified the brutal attempts to reinstitute slavery.
- The Chasseurs Volontaires: Free men of color who fought alongside the French and Americans in the Battle of Savannah, including Christophe.
- The Bourbons (Louis XVIII): The French monarchy after Napoleon, who repeatedly attempted to reassert control over Haiti and reinstate slavery, highlighting their continued colonial ambitions.
- French Spies (Augustin Franco de Medina, Jean Francois, Doxien Lavais, Herma): Sent by the Bourbons to undermine Haitian independence and prepare for the return of slavery, their mission highlights French “hubris.”
- Maroons: Enslaved people who escaped to form independent communities, representing a fundamental form of resistance against slavery.
IV. SIGNIFICANT FACTS AND EVENTS
- Battle of Savannah (October 1779): Christophe served, likely as a drummer or trumpeter at a young age, in this battle alongside the Chasseurs Volontaires. He was reportedly wounded.
- French Abolition of Slavery (1794): A key turning point that opened opportunities for social mobility for Black men.
- Leclerc Expedition (1802): French attempt to retake Saint-Domingue and reinstate slavery, a period of intense violence and conflict.
- Defection to the Armée Indigène (Fall 1802): Christophe and others defected from the French after realizing the true intentions of reinstating slavery.
- Haitian Independence Declared (January 1, 1804): A monumental achievement of the Haitian Revolution.
- Dessalines’ Assassination (October 17, 1806): A pivotal event that led to the division of Haiti and the civil war. Responsibility for the assassination is debated, with Petion claiming it was an accidental but ultimately positive outcome.
- The Civil War (1806-1820): Conflict between the northern State/Kingdom under Christophe and the southern Republic under Petion. Characterized by both military conflict and a “paper war” of competing print cultures.
- Establishment of the Kingdom of Haiti (1811): Christophe is crowned King Henry I in the North. This decision was influenced by the perceived fragility of the southern Republic and the return of Rigaud.
- French Spying and Delegation Attempts (after 1814): Repeated attempts by the restored Bourbon monarchy to undermine Haitian independence and prepare for re-conquest and the return of slavery.
- The Indemnity (Signed after Christophe’s Death): A significant financial burden placed on Haiti by France, viewed as a crucial turning point that shifted the country’s trajectory towards dependency.
V. CONCLUSION
Dr. Daut’s biography of Henri Christophe challenges conventional historical narratives by embracing the complexity and inherent biases of historical sources. By highlighting the perspectives of both allies and enemies, contextualizing Christophe’s actions within the brutal realities of his time, and exploring the vibrant print culture of the North, the book offers a nuanced understanding of Christophe and the tumultuous post-revolutionary era. The discussion underscores the importance of studying this period of “strong sovereignty” for lessons on resistance, self-reliance, and the enduring challenges faced by Haiti in the face of external pressures and internal divisions.
Study Guide
Quiz
Answer the following questions in 2-3 sentences each, drawing from the provided text.
- According to Dr. Daut, what was one of the main ethical considerations she grappled with as a biographer of Haitian figures like Henry Christophe?
- Why did Dr. Daut feel it was important to explain the spelling of Henry Christophe’s first name at the beginning of her book?
- How does Dr. Daut suggest one might understand the apparent contradiction of Henry Christophe being simultaneously portrayed with “wonder and disdain” by his rivals and enemies?
- What does Dr. Daut suggest was a major influence on Henry Christophe’s character and actions, even later in life?
- Why does Dr. Daut find it fascinating that the reliability of sources like Baron de Vastey is often questioned while others are accepted without scrutiny?
- How does Dr. Daut redefine the concept of a “free press” in the context of the northern kingdom of Haiti under Christophe?
- What were the two tragic mistakes Dr. Daut highlights regarding Christophe’s decisions around 1802-1803?
- Why does Dr. Daut put the word “massacre” in quotes when discussing events after Haitian independence?
- What was one of the key differences in approach between Christophe and Petion when dealing with French delegations seeking re-establishment of control?
- How does Dr. Daut characterize Christophe as a “complicated anti-hero”?
Essay Questions
Consider the following questions in an essay format. Do not provide answers here.
- Analyze Dr. Daut’s approach to biography as presented in the text. How does she challenge traditional biographical methods, and what are the implications of her approach for understanding historical figures, particularly those from marginalized communities?
- Discuss the significance of source material in Dr. Daut’s work on Henry Christophe. How does she use and interpret different types of sources (e.g., accounts of allies, enemies, official documents, oral history) to construct her narrative?
- Examine the various challenges faced by the newly independent state of Haiti as described in the text. How did internal divisions, external pressures, and historical context shape the actions and legacies of figures like Dessalines, Christophe, and Petion?
- Explore the concept of “resistance” as presented in the text, extending beyond armed conflict to encompass other forms of defiance and resilience. How did individuals and communities in Saint-Domingue/Haiti resist oppression, and what does this reveal about their motivations and experiences?
- Analyze the complex legacy of Henry Christophe as discussed in the text. How does Dr. Daut’s portrayal challenge or confirm existing understandings of his rule, and what aspects of his leadership and impact does she emphasize as particularly significant?
Glossary of Key Terms
- Armeé Indigène: The army formed under Dessalines after the break with the French forces under Leclerc, which ultimately fought for Haitian independence.
- Battle of Savannah: A battle during the American Revolutionary War in 1779, where free men of color from Saint-Domingue, including possibly Henry Christophe, fought alongside French and American forces against the British.
- Biographies of Resistance: A panel discussion format that explores the ethical considerations and unique challenges of writing biographies about individuals who were involved in acts of resistance against oppressive systems, specifically focusing on Haitian lives.
- Chasseur Violonterre: Free men of color from Saint-Domingue who formed military units and fought in various conflicts, including the American Revolutionary War.
- Citadelle Henry / Citadelle Laferrière: A large mountaintop fortress constructed in the northern kingdom of Haiti under the direction of Henry Christophe, intended as a defense against potential French invasion.
- Commissioner: Representatives sent by a foreign government, in this context, by the French after the Bourbon Restoration, to negotiate with the Haitian government.
- Constitution of 1801: The constitution of Saint-Domingue under Toussaint Louverture, which declared him Governor-General for life.
- Constitution of 1805: The constitution of the Empire of Haiti under Jean-Jacques Dessalines, which declared him Emperor for life.
- Constitution of December 1806: The constitution of the Republic of Haiti formed in the south after the assassination of Dessalines, which established a republican system with a president and legislative branch, notably not naming a head of state for life.
- Cradle to Grave Biography: A type of biography that covers the entire life span of a person from birth to death.
- Dessalines, Jean-Jacques: A leader of the Haitian Revolution, the first ruler of independent Haiti as Governor-General and then Emperor.
- Dictionnaire biographique: A biographical dictionary, in this context, referring to one compiled by Danielle Soupis containing information about historical figures.
- d’Estaing, Comte: The French count who was in charge of the French forces during the Battle of Savannah.
- Duvalier: Refers to the Duvalier dynasty, a period of authoritarian rule in Haiti (François “Papa Doc” Duvalier and his son Jean-Claude “Baby Doc” Duvalier), known for brutality and systematic oppression.
- Aide de Campe: A military aide-de-camp, a personal assistant to a high-ranking officer.
- Elba: The island where Napoleon Bonaparte was first exiled after his defeat in 1814.
- Genocidal Imaginings: The contemplation or planning of genocide by powerful individuals or groups, even if not fully carried out.
- Gazette a commercial and political Gazette: The official newspaper of Saint-Domingue under Dessalines, used to disseminate information and justify the revolution.
- Huane, the printer: An individual responsible for printing in Haiti during Christophe’s era, potentially involved in producing newspapers and official documents.
- French Hubris: Excessive pride or self-confidence, in this context, referring to the French belief in their ability to reassert control over Haiti despite past defeats.
- Indemnity: A payment made to compensate for loss or damage. In the context of Haiti, this refers to the exorbitant payment demanded by France in 1825 in exchange for recognition of Haitian independence.
- Inscrutability: The quality of being difficult to understand or interpret.
- Julien Prevost: One of Christophe’s former allies who later turned against him after his death, whose accounts Dr. Daut suggests should be viewed with scrutiny due to their potential bias.
- Kapo a lot more: Refers to Capois-La-Mort, a Haitian revolutionary general famous for his bravery in battle, particularly at the Battle of Vertières. His relationship with Christophe and Dessalines is discussed as complex.
- King Henry’s World: A potential newsletter Dr. Daut considered starting to share material cut from her book on Henry Christophe.
- Leclerc expedition: A large French military expedition sent by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1802 to Saint-Domingue with the aim of restoring French authority and potentially re-establishing slavery.
- Lehi: A region in Haiti, likely referring to a specific area or stronghold.
- Liberty or Death: A revolutionary slogan adopted by Haitian revolutionaries, signifying their unwavering commitment to freedom even at the cost of their lives.
- Louis the 18th: The Bourbon king of France who was restored to the throne after the fall of Napoleon. He attempted to regain control of Haiti.
- Malgras: Marie-Louise Christophe’s original last name before she was known as Qua-David.
- Malinard: Likely a misspelling of a place or person related to resistance, though the context isn’t entirely clear from the provided text.
- Malouet: The French minister of the marine under Louis XVIII, who sent spies to Haiti with instructions to pave the way for re-enslavement.
- Marpah: Likely a misspelling of a Haitian general or figure from the revolutionary era.
- Maroon: An escaped slave who established independent communities in remote areas.
- Marie Claire: The wife of Jean-Jacques Dessalines, mentioned in relation to the planning of independence celebrations.
- Marie Louise: The wife of Henry Christophe, whose original last name was Malgrin.
- Moisé: Toussaint Louverture’s nephew and a key figure in the Haitian Revolution, though he was executed by Louverture before the Leclerc expedition.
- Napoleon: Napoleon Bonaparte, the French leader who sent the Leclerc expedition to Saint-Domingue.
- Ni aequioribus imperium (You necuribus empire): A Latin phrase discussed in the text, translated by Dr. Daut as “not unequal to many,” and also interpreted as “equal to many tasks,” used in relation to Christophe’s capabilities and eventual crowning.
- Oral Historical Claims: Accounts or narratives passed down through generations verbally, which Dr. Daut acknowledges as potentially valuable historical sources.
- Paper War Book: Refers to Chelsea Steiber’s book “Haiti’s Paper War: Post-Independence Writing, Civil War, and the Making of the Republic of Haiti,” which discusses the role of print culture in Haiti’s early years.
- Petion, Alexandre: A leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first president of the Republic of Haiti in the south, a rival of Henry Christophe.
- Port au Class: Likely referring to Port-au-Prince, the capital of the southern Republic of Haiti.
- Prince Saunders: An African American educator and diplomat who visited Haiti and was associated with Henry Christophe.
- Pro-colonial apologist: Someone who defends or excuses colonialism.
- Pro-slavery crowd: Individuals who supported and advocated for the continuation of slavery.
- Reconquest Pamphlets: Pamphlets written by individuals exiled from Haiti (like Rigaud) outlining plans for the French to retake the colony.
- Renee de Vester: A figure who is the subject of a biography being written by Kyoma Glover, mentioned in the context of the “Biographies of Resistance” panel.
- Repopulate this colony: The stated intention of Rochambeau to kill the existing Haitian population and bring in new enslaved people from Africa to repopulate the colony.
- Rigaud, André: A leader of the Haitian Revolution and a rival of Toussaint Louverture and later Henry Christophe, known for his military career and eventual return to Haiti.
- Rochambeau, Donatien-Marie-Joseph de Vimeur, vicomte de: The French commander who took over from Leclerc during the expedition to Saint-Domingue, known for his extreme brutality and genocidal intentions.
- Rural Code: Laws enacted in Haiti after independence that regulated agricultural labor and land ownership.
- Saint Domingue: The French colony on the island of Hispaniola that would become Haiti after the revolution.
- Saint Susie: Likely referring to the Sans-Souci Palace, the royal residence of Henry Christophe in the northern kingdom of Haiti.
- Schizont: A division or split, referring to the split between Rigaud and Petion after Rigaud’s return to Haiti.
- Secessionist: Someone who advocates for formal withdrawal from an organization, state, or union. In this context, likely referring to the split between the northern and southern parts of Haiti.
- Sedition: Conduct or speech inciting people to rebel against the authority of a state or monarch.
- Sovereign world where black people can thrive: The vision articulated by Haitian writers of a world where Black people have self-determination and the opportunity to flourish, free from colonial and racist oppression.
- State of Haiti: The northern part of Haiti under Christophe after the assassination of Dessalines, before it became the Kingdom of Haiti.
- Suzanne Duverture: Toussaint Louverture’s wife, who is the subject of a biography being written by Robin Mitchell, mentioned in the context of the “Biographies of Resistance” panel.
- Thomas Clarkson: A British abolitionist who was a friend and supporter of Henry Christophe.
- Tonton Macoute: The private militia created by François Duvalier, known for its brutality and terror.
- Toussaint Louverture: A key leader of the Haitian Revolution, who rose from enslavement to become Governor-General of Saint-Domingue.
- Turncoat: A person who deserts a party or cause in order to join an opposing one.
- Vate, Baron Duvatte: Charles-André-Rémy Lasalle, Baron de Vastey, Henry Christophe’s private secretary and a prolific writer who defended Christophe’s rule and the northern kingdom.
- Vertières: The site of the final major battle of the Haitian Revolution in 1803, where the Haitian forces defeated the French.
- Vilton, Commander: A general mentioned as a friend of Christophe, who convinced him to join forces with the French during the Leclerc expedition.
- Vincent Oje: A leader of an early rebellion against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue.
- Wilbur Force: Likely referring to William Wilberforce, a British abolitionist who was a friend and supporter of Henry Christophe.
Quiz Answer Key
Dr. Daut characterizes Christophe as a “complicated anti-hero” because he had a vision for a free and thriving society and believed his actions were for the good of his people, but his methods could be seen as tyrannical, and his belief in his own indispensability led to dangerous views.
Dr. Daut’s main ethical consideration was the responsibility to provide context and background for the reader, acknowledging the relationship between the chronicler and the subject, rather than presenting an objective, silent judgment on the reliability of sources.
Dr. Daut felt it was important to explain the spelling of Henry Christophe’s name because editors had often tried to “correct” her spelling, and she wanted the reader to understand that she was using the spelling Christophe himself preferred and which had historical precedent.
Dr. Daut suggests that to understand Christophe being portrayed with both wonder and disdain, one must consider the various perspectives of those who knew him, acknowledging that different people had different opinions of him and their accounts contribute to a complex picture.
Dr. Daut suggests that Henry Christophe’s experiences as a child growing up in brutal environments and witnessing extreme violence profoundly influenced his character and outlook, even in later life.
Dr. Daut finds it fascinating that the reliability of sources like Vastey is questioned while others are accepted without scrutiny because it suggests a pre-existing conclusion or bias, where people are more inclined to trust accounts that align with their own views.
In the context of the northern kingdom of Haiti, Dr. Daut explains that a “free press” meant the ability for Haitians to speak back to the colonial world powers and tell the truth about slavery and colonialism, rather than the modern conception of having numerous independent newspapers.
The two tragic mistakes Dr. Daut highlights are Christophe’s decision to join forces with the French during the Leclerc expedition based on their promises of freedom, and tragically, sending his eldest son to France for education around the same time, leading to his son’s death in difficult circumstances.
Dr. Daut puts the word “massacre” in quotes when discussing events after Haitian independence to highlight the contested nature of these events and challenge the often-used term, suggesting it’s important to consider what qualifies as a massacre and whose experiences are centered.
One key difference was Christophe’s refusal to negotiate with French delegations who called him “general” or referred to Haiti as a “mother country,” insisting on recognition of Haitian sovereignty, while Petion was more willing to entertain negotiations and potential payments for recognition.
