A martyr list from Mombasa names only Portuguese and omits a hundred and fifty Africans

Dom Jeronimo Chingulia was educated by Augustinians in Goa, married a Portuguese woman and was installed as king of Malindi and Mombasa. In 1631 he renounced Christianity and massacred every Christian who would not renounce it with him. Among those who refused and died was his cousin Dom Antonio of Malindi, also educated abroad, who had served in the Portuguese navy and whose leadership during the crisis several witnesses attested. Evidence was gathered afterwards for a possible canonisation of the martyrs. The list of names sent to Rome contained four priests, forty seven men, thirty nine women and fifty nine children, and every one of them was Portuguese. About a hundred and fifty Africans died in the same massacre. None was included, not even Dom Antonio. The stated conclusion was that God had chosen to honour the Portuguese nation by showing the firmness of its faith.

Before the seventeenth century opened, Europeans controlled few of the islands in the Caribbean. Spain held Trinidad and the large islands, Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, where it raised cattle, grew food and a little tobacco and sugar, and above all watched the sea lanes running to the silver of the mainland. Between 1604 and 1640 the English, the French and the Dutch came in and took all the minor islands. The Dutch held part of Brazil from 1625 to 1654. England seized Jamaica from Spain in 1655. Wallerstein sets this rush inside a long slump in the European economy, when appetite for sugar in the wealthy countries was still climbing and each state moved to secure a source before its rivals could. Where taking territory outright was too expensive, as it was against Spain and Portugal, the same states fed off existing colonies through contraband. After the 1650s the division of the Caribbean stayed largely fixed until 1763.

The first small party of French settlers reached Tortuga, the island lying off the north coast of what is now Haiti, in 1629. They were pirates, cattle rustlers and buccaneers who lived by raiding Spanish shipping and by hunting the wild cattle that roamed the larger island. Hides were their trade and their food. From that base they fought the Spanish and gradually pushed onto Hispaniola itself, where they began planting cacao, cotton and indigo. Farming was what let the settlements hold their ground, since a camp that grows food does not have to move. The fort on Tortuga became the pivot of the fighting between European powers for the island. Nothing about this beginning suggested a colony. Within seventy years the western third of Hispaniola would be French territory, and within a hundred and sixty it would be the most profitable piece of ground in the Atlantic world.

A description written in 1627 sets out what the inside of a slave ship was. Captives were packed under the deck in chains, the men linked to one another at the neck and at the feet, so that a row of people had to move together or not at all. They were kept below for the length of the crossing and did not see the sun or the moon. There was no ventilation to speak of, and the account records that the Spanish crew were themselves afraid to go down through the hatches because of what came up out of them. Food was a bowl a day of uncooked maize flour or millet, with a little water. None of that was the accident of one bad voyage. The packing, the irons and the ration all follow from a single decision, to move the greatest number of people at the lowest cost with a rate of death agreed in advance. The arithmetic was done in offices, by men who never went below.