A pastoral community stretched from the Sudanese confluence to Middle Egypt

The Egyptian archaeologist Fekri Hassan set out the argument for a common cultural world along the middle Nile in a 1988 article in the Journal of World Prehistory. David Wengrow and his coauthors brought it up to date in Antiquity, and it is now the working assumption of the archaeologists who have done most to expand knowledge of these regions over four decades. What they describe is a shared complex of developments emerging from around 6000 to 5500 BCE across a huge span, from a couple of hundred kilometres south of where the Abbai meets the White Nile as far north as El-Badari in Middle Egypt. They call it the primary pastoral community. The name understates the economy. Linguistic evidence, archaeology and human dental remains all show these people collecting, cultivating and harvesting grain and other crops alongside their herds. The foundations of ancient Egypt were laid across that landscape, and the landscape was African throughout.

West Africa produced its own inherited office, the kumo, which linguists trace back to proto-South Volta-Congo around the start of the sixth millennium BCE. Comparative ethnography across a wide band of the continent indicates the holder began as a clan ritual chief in clans that reckoned descent through the mother. His work was spiritual mediation: keeping the community on proper terms with the ancestors. Early on the office picked up civic duties too. The kumo moderated communal meetings, oversaw deliberation about law and custom, and spoke for his people in dealings with other communities. In later centuries the position gained real powers in a number of regions and turned into chiefship or kingship. Set against Nilo-Saharan sacral kingship, this is a different route to authority. One concentrates the spiritual and the temporal in a single divine figure. The other spreads authority across a network of ritual specialists whose standing rests on what they do. Africa was running both experiments at once.

In northeastern Africa, among peoples speaking Cushitic languages, a third kind of clan religious figure goes back at least to the sixth millennium BCE. In some Soomaali-speaking parts of the Horn the waab or waaber is also called rooble, possessor of rain, which indicates plainly what people believed he could do. Holders of the office never became political rulers. They commanded reverence, and their views carried great weight whenever a community had a decision to make. That makes three inherited traditions of authority, all traceable to the sixth millennium BCE or earlier, in three different language families. The Nilo-Saharan sacral king fused spiritual and temporal power. The Niger-Congo kumo mediated between the living and the ancestors inside a matrilineal clan. The Cushitic rain possessor held religious standing that gave his voice weight without ever hardening into rule. Political authority has more than one origin story, and Africa preserves at least three of them.

Convergence across the middle Nile shows up first in pottery, where the same styles turn up along a corridor more than a thousand kilometres long. The pots are the easy evidence. What ties the region together more firmly is ritual, and it holds along the river and far out into the surrounding country. A ceramic style can travel with a trader, an imitator, or a single potter who moves house. Ways of burying the dead, ways of marking the sacred, working assumptions about what stands between people and the divine: those spread only through intermarriage, through generations of neighbours attending each other's ceremonies, through sustained and unglamorous contact. When archaeologists identify ritual commonalities running from the Sudan belt to El-Badari, they are describing a single cultural universe rather than a trading network. The funerary practice and cosmology that later became the signature of pharaonic religion were worked out in the grasslands of the middle Nile by pastoral communities.